대명大明과 티베트 불교: 몽골제국과 명조의 계승성을 논함

This article proposes to understand the alternating periods of the Ming dynasty, spanning the 14th and 15th centuries, as continuous rather than discrete. I note that the continuity between the two periods can be seen in politics, diplomacy, society, economics, and even culture, which broadly encompasses religion, arts, and crafts. In doing so, I argue that the world order and cultural traditions established by the Mongols were in part inherited and developed by the Ming and became part of the Chinese cultural tradition. I first examine the continuity of the two periods in political rhetoric, noting the similarity in the naming of the two state symbols, Da-Yuan 大元 and Da-Ming 大明, and the way the supreme ruler is described as having been granted a divine mandate. Despite the political rhetoric of overcoming the Mongols, Zhu Yuanzhang was never free from the traditions of the Mongol Empire that preceded it. My second point is that in the international context of the early 15th century, the Ming sought to position itself as the successor to the Mongols. This was more a function of the irresistible circumstances of the times than of Ming's will. Timur, who was growing in power in Central Asia, launched an eastern campaign aimed at restoring the Great Mongol Ulus. Although Timur's death during the campaign prevented the realization of his grand offensive against the Ming, there was no shortage of attempts to restore Mongol glory after that, and the Ming had to deal with a new Mongol ruler each time. The last thing I noticed is that the relationship between the Tibetan Buddhist community and the Mongol regime continued into the Ming dynasty. It even continued through the Ming and into the Qing, ensuring the long-lasting status of Tibetan Buddhism in large areas of eastern Eurasia. By the late 13th century, the relationship between the Sakya Order and the Kublai had left religious monuments dotted across the Da-du 大都, present Beijing, and the monks who served the imperial court were active as religious and intellectuals across India, Tibet, Central Asia, and the steppes of Central and Mongolia. The reverence and expectation of Mongol rulers as purveyors and patrons of culture played an important role in placing Mongolia at the center of the world and was inherited by the Ming. This was also part of the systemic competition that the Ming faced with the Mongol descendants in eastern Eurasia.